The Soul Purpose!

The first thing to be understood is what ego is. A child is born. A child is born without any knowledge, any consciousness of his own self. And when a child is born the first thing he becomes aware of is not himself; the first thing he becomes aware of is the other. It is natural, because the eyes open outwards, the hands touch others, the ears listen to others, the tongue tastes food and the nose smells the outside. All these senses open outwards.That is what birth means. Birth means coming into this world, the world of the outside. So when a child is born, he is born into this world. He opens his eyes, sees others. 'Other' means the thou. He becomes aware of the mother first. Then, by and by, he becomes aware of his own body. That too is the other, that too belongs to the world. He is hungry and he feels the body; his need is satisfied, he forgets the body. This is how a child grows. First he becomes aware of you, thou, other, and then by and by, in contrast to you, thou, he becomes aware of himself.This awareness is a reflected awareness. He is not aware of who he is. He is simply aware of the mother and what she thinks about him. If she smiles, if she appreciates the child, if she says, "You are beautiful," if she hugs and kisses him, the child feels good about himself. Now an ego is born. Through appreciation, love, care, he feels he is good, he feels he is valuable, he feels he has some significance A center is born. But this center is a reflected center. It is not his real being.
   He does not know who he is; he simply knows what others think about him. And this is the ego: the reflection, what others think. If nobody thinks that he is of any use, nobody appreciates him, nobody smiles, then too an ego is born: an ill ego; sad, rejected, like a wound; feeling inferior, worthless. This too is the ego. This too is a reflection.First the mother - and mother means the world in the beginning. Then others will join the mother, and the world goes on growing. And the more the world grows, the more complex the ego becomes, because many others' opinions are reflected.The ego is an accumulated phenomenon, a by-product of living with others. If a child lives totally alone, he will never come to grow an ego. But that is not going to help. He will remain like an animal. That doesn't mean that he will come to know the real self, no.
   The real can be known only through the false, so the ego is a must. One has to pass through it. It is a discipline. The real can be known only through the illusion. You cannot know the truth directly. First you have to know that which is not true. First you have to encounter the untrue. Through that encounter you become capable of knowing the truth. If you know the false as the false, truth will dawn upon you.
   Ego is a need; it is a social need, it is a social by-product. The society means all that is around you - not you, but all that is around you. All, minus you, is the society. And everybody reflects. You will go to school and the teacher will reflect who you are. You will be in friendship with other children and they will reflect who you are. By and by, everybody is adding to your ego, and everybody is trying to modify it in such a way that you don't become a problem to the society.They are not concerned with you They are concerned with the society. Society is concerned with itself, and that's how it should be.They are not concerned that you should become a self-knower. They are concerned that you should become an efficient part in the mechanism of the society. You should fit into the pattern. So they are trying to give you an ego that fits with the society. They teach you morality. Morality means giving you an ego which will fit with the society. If you are immoral, you will always be a misfit somewhere or other. That's why we put criminals in the prisons - not that they have done something wrong, not that by putting them in the prisons we are going to improve them, no. They simply don't fit. They are troublemakers. They have certain types of egos of which the society doesn't approve. If the society approves, everything is good. One man kills somebody - he is a murderer And the same man in wartime kills thousands - he becomes a great hero. The society is not bothered by a murder, but the murder should be commited for the society - then it is okay. The society doesn't bother about morality. Morality means only that you should fit with the society. If the society is at war, then the morality changes.If the society is at peace, then there is a different morality.
      Morality is a social politics. It is diplomacy. And each child has to be brought up in such a way that he fits into the society, that's all. Because society is interested in efficient members. Society is not interested that you should attain to self-knowledge.The society creates an ego because the ego can be controlled and manipulated. The self can never be controlled or manipulated. Nobody has ever heard of the society controlling a self - not possible. And the child needs a center; the child is completely unaware of his own center. The society gives him a center and the child is by and by convinced that this is his center, the ego that society gives. A child comes back to his home - if he has come first in his class, the whole family is happy.  You hug and kiss him, and you take the child on your shoulders and dance and you say, "What a beautiful child! You are a pride to us." You are giving him an ego, a subtle ego. And if the child comes home dejected, unsuccessful, a failure - he couldn't pass, or he has just been on the back bench - then nobody appreciates him and the child feels rejected. He will try harder next time, because the center feels shaken.
      Ego is always shaken, always in search of food, that somebody should appreciate it. That's why you continuously ask for attention. You get the idea of who you are from others. It is not a direct experience.
      It is from others that you get the idea of who you are. They shape your center. This center is false, because you carry your real center. That is nobody's business. Nobody shapes it.You come with it.
 You are born with it.So you have two centers. One center you come with, which is given by existence itself. That is the self. And the other center, which is created by the society, is the ego. It is a false thing - and it is a very great trick. Through the ego the society is controlling you. You have to behave in a certain way, because only then does the society appreciate you. You have to walk in a certain way; you have to laugh in a certain way; you have to follow certain manners, a morality, a code. Only then will the society appreciate you, and if it doesn't, you ego will be shaken. And when the ego is shaken, you don't know where you are, who you are.The others have given you the idea.That idea is the ego. Try to understand it as deeply as possible, because this has to be thrown. And unless you throw it you will never be able to attain to the self. Because you are addicted to the center, you cannot move, and you cannot look at the self.
      And remember, there is going to be an interim period, an interval, when the ego will be shattered, when you will not know who you are, when you will not know where you are going, when all boundaries will melt.
 You will simply be confused, a chaos. Because of this chaos, you are afraid to lose the ego. But it has to be so. One has to pass through the chaos before one attains to the real center. And if you are daring, the period will be small. If you are afraid, and you again fall back to the ego, and you again start arranging it, then it can be very, very long; many lives can be wasted. I have heard: One small child was visiting his grandparents. He was just four years old. In the night when the grandmother was putting him to sleep, he suddenly started crying and weeping and said, "I want to go home. I am afraid of darkness." But the grandmother said, "I know well that at home also you sleep in the dark; I have never seen a light on. So why are you afraid here?" The boy said, "Yes, that's right - but that is MY darkness." This darkness is completely unknown.  Even with darkness you feel, "This is MINE." Outside - an unknown darkness.
      With the ego you feel, "This is MY darkness."
 It may be troublesome, maybe it creates many miseries, but still mine. Something to hold to, something to cling to, something underneath the feet; you are not in a vacuum, not in an emptiness. You may be miserable, but at least you ARE. Even being miserable gives you a feeling of 'I am'. Moving from it, fear takes over; you start feeling afraid of the unknown darkness and chaos - because society has managed to clear a small part of your being.  It is just like going to a forest. You make a little clearing, you clear a little ground; you make fencing, you make a small hut; you make a small garden, a lawn, and you are okay. Beyond your fence - the forest, the wild. Here everything is okay; you have planned everything. This is how it has happened.
      Society has made a little clearing in your consciousness. It has cleaned just a little part completely, fenced it. Everything is okay there. That's what all your universities are doing. The whole culture and conditioning is just to clear a part so that you can feel at home there.
      And then you become afraid.
      Beyond the fence there is danger.
      Beyond the fence you are, as within the fence you are - and your conscious mind is just one part, one-tenth of your whole being. Nine-tenths is waiting in the darkness. And in that nine-tenths, somewhere your real center is hidden.
      One has to be daring, courageous.
      One has to take a step into the unknown.
      For a while all boundaries will be lost.
      For a while you will feel dizzy.
      For a while, you will feel very afraid and shaken, as if an earthquake has happened. But if you are courageous and you don't go backwards, if you don't fall back to the ego and you go on and on, there is a hidden center within you that you have been carrying for many lives.
      That is your soul, the self.
      Once you come near it, everything changes, everything settles again. But now this settling is not done by the society. Now everything becomes a cosmos, not a chaos; a new order arises.
      But this is no longer the order of the society - it is the very order of existence itself.
      It is what Buddha calls Dhamma, Lao Tzu calls Tao, Heraclitus calls Logos. It is not man-made. It is the VERY order of existence itself. Then everything is suddenly beautiful again, and for the first time really beautiful, because man-made things cannot be beautiful. At the most you can hide the ugliness of them, that's all. You can decorate them, but they can never be beautiful.
      The difference is just like the difference between a real flower and a plastic or paper flower. The ego is a plastic flower - dead. It just looks like a flower, it is not a flower. You cannot really call it a flower. Even linguistically to call it a flower is wrong, because a flower is something which flowers. And this plastic thing is just a thing, not a flowering. It is dead. There is no life in it.
      You have a flowering center within. That's why Hindus call it a lotus - it is a flowering. They call it the one-thousand-petaled-lotus. One thousand means infinite petals. And it goes on flowering, it never stops, it never dies.
      But you are satisfied with a plastic ego.
      There are some reasons why you are satisfied. With a dead thing, there are many conveniences. One is that a dead thing never dies. It cannot - it was never alive. So you can have plastic flowers, they are good in a way. They are permanent; they are not eternal, but they are permanent.
      The real flower outside in the garden is eternal, but not permanent. And the eternal has its own way of being eternal. The way of the eternal is to be born again and again and to die. Through death it refreshes itself, rejuvenates itself.
      To us it appears that the flower has died - it never dies.
      It simply changes bodies, so it is ever fresh.
      It leaves the old body, it enters a new body. It flowers somewhere else; it goes on flowering.
      But we cannot see the continuity because the continuity is invisible. We see only one flower, another flower; we never see the continuity.
      It is the same flower which flowered yesterday.
      It is the same sun, but in a different garb.
      The ego has a certain quality - it is dead. It is a plastic thing. And it is very easy to get it, because others give it. You need not seek it, there is no search involved. That's why unless you become a seeker after the unknown, you have not yet become an individual. You are just a part of the crowd. You are just a mob.
      When you don't have a real center, how can you be an individual?
      The ego is not individual. Ego is a social phenomenon - it is society, its not you. But it gives you a function in the society, a hierarchy in the society. And if you remain satisfied with it, you will miss the whole opportunity of finding the self.
      And that's why you are so miserable.
      With a plastic life, how can you be happy?
      With a false life, how can you be ecstatic and blissful? And then this ego creates many miseries, millions of them.
      You cannot see, because it is your own darkness. You are attuned to it.
      Have you ever noticed that all types of miseries enter through the ego? It cannot make you blissful; it can only make you miserable.
      Ego is hell.
      Whenever you suffer, just try to watch and analyze, and you will find, somewhere the ego is the cause of it. And the ego goes on finding causes to suffer.
      You are an egoist, as everyone is. Some are very gross, just on the surface, and they are not so difficult. Some are very subtle, deep down, and they are the real problems.
      This ego comes continuously in conflict with others because every ego is so unconfident about itself. Is has to be - it is a false thing. When you don't have anything in your hand and you just think that something is there, then there will be a problem.
      If somebody says, "There is nothing," immediately the fight will start, because you also feel that there is nothing. The other makes you aware of the fact.
      Ego is false, it is nothing.
      That you also know.
      How can you miss knowing it? It is impossible! A conscious being - how can he miss knowing that this ego is just false? And then others say that there is nothing - and whenever the others say that there is nothing they hit a wound, they say a truth - and nothing hits like the truth.
      You have to defend, because if you don't defend, if you don't become defensive, then where will you be?
      You will be lost.
      The identity will be broken.
      So you have to defend and fight - that is the clash.
      A man who attains to the self is never in any clash. Others may come and clash with him, but he is never in clash with anybody.
      It happened that one Zen master was passing through a street. A man came running and hit him hard. The master fell down. Then he got up and started to walk in the same direction in which he was going before, not even looking back.
      A disciple was with the master. He was simply shocked. He said, "Who is this man? What is this? If one lives in such a way, then anybody can come and kill you. And you have not even looked at that person, who he is, and why he did it."
      The master said, "That is his problem, not mine."
      You can clash with an enlightened man, but that is your problem, not his. And if you are hurt in that clash, that too is your own problem. He cannot hurt you. And it is like knocking against a wall - you will be hurt, but the wall has not hurt you.
      The ego is always looking for some trouble. Why? Because if nobody pays attention to you, the ego feels hungry.
      It lives on attention.
      So even if somebody is fighting and angry with you, that too is good because at least the attention is paid. If somebody loves, it is okay. If somebody is not loving you, then even anger will be good. At least the attention will come to you. But if nobody is paying any attention to you, nobody thinks that you are somebody important, significant, then how will you feed your ego?
      Other's attention is needed.
      In millions of ways you attract the attention of others; you dress in a certain way, you try to look beautiful, you behave, you become very polite, you change. When you feel what type of situation is there, you immediately change so that people pay attention to you.
      This is a deep begging.
      A real beggar is one who asks for and demands attention. And a real emperor is one who lives in himself; he has a center of his own, he doesn't depend on anybody else.
      Buddha sitting under his bodhi tree...if the whole world suddenly disappears, will it make any difference to Buddha? -none. It will not make any difference at all. If the whole world disappears, it will not make any difference because he has attained to the center.
      But you, if the wife escapes, divorces you, goes to somebody else, you are completely shattered - because she had been paying attention to you, caring, loving, moving around you, helping you to feel that you were somebody. Your whole empire is lost, you are simply shattered. You start thinking about suicide. Why? Why, if a wife leaves you, should you commit suicide? Why, if a husband leaves you, should you commit suicide? Because you don't have any center of your own. The wife was giving you the center; the husband was giving you the center.
      This is how people exist. This is how people become dependent on others. It is a deep slavery. Ego HAS to be a slave. It depends on others. And only a person who has no ego is for the first time a master; he is no longer a slave. Try to understand this.
      And start looking for the ego - not in others, that is not your business, but in yourself. Whenever you feel miserable, immediately close you eyes and try to find out from where the misery is coming and you will always find it is the false center which has clashed with someone.
      You expected something, and it didn't happen.
      You expected something, and just the contrary happened - your ego is shaken, you are in misery. Just look, whenever you are miserable, try to find out why.
      Causes are not outside you. The basic cause is within you - but you always look outside, you always ask:
      Who is making me miserable?
Who is the cause of my anger?
Who is the cause of my anguish?
And if you look outside you will miss.
Just close the eyes and always look within.
The source of all misery, anger, anguish, is hidden in you, your ego.
      And if you find the source, it will be easy to move beyond it. If you can see that it is your own ego that gives you trouble, you will prefer to drop it - because nobody can carry the source of misery if he understands it.
      And remember, there is no need to drop the ego.
      You cannot drop it.
      If you try to drop it, you will attain to a certain subtle ego again which says, "I have become humble."
      Don't try to be humble. That's again ego in hiding - but it's not dead.
      Don't try to be humble.
      Nobody can try humility, and nobody can create humility through any effort of his own - no. When the ego is no more, a humbleness comes to you. It is not a creation. It is a shadow of the real center.
      And a really humble man is neither humble nor egoistic.
      He is simply simple.
      He's not even aware that he is humble.
      If you are aware that you are humble, the ego is there.
      Look at humble persons.... There are millions who think that they are very humble. They bow down very low, but watch them - they are the subtlest egoists. Now humility is their source of food. They say, "I am humble," and then they look at you and they wait for you to appreciate them.
      "You are really humble," they would like you to say. "In fact, you are the most humble man in the world; nobody is as humble as you are." Then see the smile that comes on their faces.
      What is ego? Ego is a hierarchy that says, "No one is like me." It can feed on humbleness - "Nobody is like me, I am the most humble man."
      It happened once:
      A fakir, a beggar, was praying in a mosque, just early in the morning when it was still dark. It was a certain religious day for Mohammedians, and he was praying, and he was saying, "I am nobody. I am the poorest of the poor, the greatest sinner of sinners."
      Suddenly there was one more person who was praying. He was the emperor of that country, and he was not aware that there was somebody else there who was praying - it was dark, and the emperor was also saying:
      "I am nobody. I am nothing. I am just empty, a beggar at our door." When he heard that somebody else was saying the same thing, he said, "Stop! Who is trying to overtake me? Who are you? How dare you say before the emperor that you are nobody when he is saying that he is nobody?"
      This is how the ego goes. It is so subtle. Its ways are so subtle and cunning; you have to be very, very alert, only then will you see it. Don't try to be humble. Just try to see that all misery, all anguish comes through it.
      Just watch! No need to drop it.
      You cannot drop it. Who will drop it? Then the DROPPER will become the ego. It always comes back.
      Whatsoever you do, stand out of it, and look and watch.
      Whatsoever you do - humbleness, humility, simplicity - nothing will help. Only one thing is possible, and that is just to watch and see that it is the source of all misery. Don't say it. Don't repeat it - WATCH. Because if I say it is the source of all misery and you repeat it, then it is useless. YOU have to come to that understanding. Whenever you are miserable, just close the eyes and don't try to find some cause outside. Try to see from where this misery is coming.
      It is your own ego.
      If you continuously feel and understand, and the understanding that the ego is the cause becomes so deep-rooted, one day you will suddenly see that it has disappeared. Nobody drops it - nobody can drop it. You simply see; it has simply disappeared, because the very understanding that ego causes all misery becomes the dropping. THE VERY UNDERSTANDING IS THE DISAPPEARANCE OF THE EGO.
      And you are so clever in seeing the ego in others. Anybody can see someone else's ego. When it comes to your own, then the problem arises - because you don't know the territory, you have never traveled on it.
      The whole path towards the divine, the ultimate, has to pass through this territory of the ego. The false has to be understood as false. The source of misery has to be understood as the source of misery - then it simply drops.
      When you know it is poison, it drops. When you know it is fire, it drops. When you know this is the hell, it drops.
      And then you never say, "I have dropped the ego." Then you simply laugh at the whole thing, the joke that you were the creator of all misery.
      I was just looking at a few cartoons of Charlie Brown. In one cartoon he is playing with blocks, making a house out of children's blocks. He is sitting in the middle of the blocks building the walls. Then a moment comes when he is enclosed; all around he has made a wall. Then he cries, "Help, help!"
      He has done the whole thing! Now he is enclosed, imprisoned. This is childish, but this is all that you have done also. You have made a house all around yourself, and now you are crying, "Help, help!" And the misery becomes a millionfold - because there are helpers who are also in the same boat.
      It happened that one very beautiful woman went to see her psychiatrist for the first time. The psychiatrist said, "Come closer please." When she came closer, he simply jumped and hugged and kissed the woman. She was shocked. Then he said, "Now sit down. This takes care of my problem, now what is your problem?"
      The problem becomes multifold, because there are helpers who are in the same boat. And they would like to help, because when you help somebody the ego feels very good, very, very good - because you are a great helper, a great guru, a master; you are helping so many people. The greater the crowd of your followers, the better you feel.
      But you are in the same boat - you cannot help.
      Rather, you will harm.
      People who still have their own problems cannot be of much help. Only someone who has no problems of his own can help you. Only then is there the clarity to see, to see through you. A mind that has no problems of its own can see you, you become transparent.
      A mind that has no problems of its own can see through itself; that's why it becomes capable of seeing through others.
      In the West, there are many schools of psychoanalysis, many schools, and no help is reaching people, but rather, harm. Because the people who are helping others, or trying to help, or posing as helpers, are in the same boat.
      ...It is difficult to see one's own ego.
      It is very easy to see other's egos. But that is not the point, you cannot help them.
      Try to see your own ego.
      Just watch it.
      Don't be in a hurry to drop it, just watch it. The more you watch, the more capable you will become. Suddenly one day, you simply see that it has dropped. And when it drops by itself, only then does it drop. There is no other way. Prematurely you cannot drop it.
      It drops just like a dead leaf.
      The tree is not doing anything - just a breeze, a situation, and the dead leaf simply drops. The tree is not even aware that the dead leaf has dropped. It makes no noise, it makes no claim - nothing.
      The dead leaf simply drops and shatters on the ground, just like that.
      When you are mature through understanding, awareness, and you have felt totally that ego is the cause of all your misery, simply one day you see the dead leaf dropping.
      It settles into the ground, dies of its own accord. You have not done anything so you cannot claim that you have dropped it. You see that it has simply disappeared, and then the real center arises.
      And that real center is the soul, the self, the god, the truth, or whatsoever you want to call it.
      It is nameless, so all names are good.
      You can give it any name of your own liking.




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Mirror mirror on the wall...are You the fairest of them all???

Analysis of Snow White And The Seven Dwarves


by Stephen Flynn. CQSW., ECP., BPA.

Psychotherapist



The Opie's (P & I Opie, The Classic Fairy Tales) tell us that the story of Snow White can be found with little variation all over the world `...from Ireland to Asia Minor and in several parts of North and West Africa.' (Opie & Opie 1980:227). So we are dealing with a fairytale which has a lot of meaning for many people and like myth continues to fascinate.



I feel quite humbled as I continue to realise such simple stories as Snow White still hold much for us that remains deeply buried within its simplicity. I am prepared to conclude that some fairy stories seem to verge on myth, in that, the more I read about the science of myth, the more I conclude that this tale has the key factors of classical mythology.



If this is so, then we might give more weight to these simple tales. Perhaps it is `invented' just to show us something of our selves and perhaps these simple stories are as C. G. Jung considers myth to be, the '..unconscious expressions of ourselves...'(Jung and Kerényi 1989:162),



My difficulty with 'classical myth' is that it was once believed to be true, and was yesteryear religion. Whereas the fairy story was never believed to be so, but then again, in the eyes of a child such stories are considered `true.' Was medieval man more 'child like,' primitive or less differentiated in his belief then modern man and did he give credibility to the fairytale as we now give to religion?



I would like to believe society has moved on to distinguish a little better between the truth of ‘maybe’, and the fantasy of ‘what if...’. Whatever stance one takes either with religion, myth or fairy tale, they all share a common purpose of transmitting meaning. Both fairytale and myth have stood the test of time, both contain an underlying pattern that speaks to our present day condition. On this basis I suggest we take the fairytale seriously and try to discover what this pattern is. But no matter how extensive my rendering of the story, deeper meanings will always remain. As Jung put it, `...The archetypes are the imperishable elements of the unconscious, but they change their shape continually.' (Ibid:98). This 'imperishable element' of the unconscious is a key, held in myth, to assist in our understanding of a pattern, the unconscious maps within us all. What if we can identify this map? It may be possible to 'plan' or 'map out' the stages of life in the analysand, and thereby aid psychological healing.



To start my analysis of Snow White, I will assume that the whole of the story to date describes a state of the immature feminine psyche. For instance, there are three women in this story, and the first, the caring mother soon dies leaving our heroine Snow White with no psychological mother. Thus all the images in the story can be seen or can become aspects of a feminine or the ‘Anima’ irrespective of gender (Jung 1960:345).



I will use all the people mentioned in this Fairy Story to represent autonomous complexes common to us all and yet still held in a single mind or to put it another way, I will take each character of the story to represent different aspects of ‘the Self’.



This story is essentially a story for little girls and so I may be in danger of running the sexist gauntlet, but I wish to make it clear that there is equally such immature imagery to be found in the psyche of men or in the masculine psyche ‘Animus’ (ibid.), which can also be found in stories like Jack and the Bean Stalk . In fact, these stories tell us how to develop and integrate conflicting aspects of our selves as our personal unconscious map unfolds. At the start of the story Snow White, or the anima, is far from complete as she is both innocent and immature and lacks a caring mother figure within. I will continue to pursue this line of thought throughout the remainder of this paper as there is much to gain from so doing. I will use anima or animus to be interchangeable with either ‘boy, man’ or ‘girl and woman’.



Here is a brief reminder of the story:



A young queen sat sewing by a window in mid-winter, using an ebony embroidery frame. She pricked her finger and seeing the red blood, made a wish that the child within her should have skin as white as the snow, with cheeks as red as the blood and hair and eyes as black as the ebony frame. Subsequently a daughter was born with the gifts the Queen wished for, but she herself died at the birth. A year later the king married again. His new queen was very beautiful, but vain and proud. She relied on a magic mirror to assure her of her supremacy in beauty.



When Snow White was seven years old the magic mirror told the queen that her step-daughter had surpassed her in loveliness. The queen fell into a rage and sent a huntsman into the forest with Snow White to kill her. He could not bring himself to carry out her order, but left her in the forest. Eventually, she found the cottage of the seven dwarfs, where she was well received. In return for house keeping they undertook to look after her, having heard her story. Concerned for her safety, they told her she must not allow anyone into the house when they were away working, digging for precious metals in the nearby mountains.



All went well until the step-mother queen found out from her magic mirror that Snow White was still alive and still surpassing her in beauty. She made three visits to attempt to kill her (after trying to do so via the huntsman) and appeared to have succeeded in the fourth attempt when she handed her a poisoned apple through the window.



The dwarfs came home to find Snow White's lifeless body and placed her in a glass coffin as she remained as beautiful as ever. Sometime later a prince came by on a horse, fell in love with Snow White and persuaded the Dwarfs to give the body and the coffin to him. As he lifted her onto his horse, the piece of poisoned apple fell out of her mouth and she was brought back to life.



The prince took Snow White back to his castle where they were married amidst great rejoicing. The step-mother queen danced herself to death in rage at the wedding.



In psychological terms, what is going on for Snow White?



In Opies' version, the alternative title of Snow Drop is used, and starts with Snow Drop's mother a Queen who ...'sat working at a window, the frame of which was made of fine black ebony: and as she was looking out upon the snow, she pricked her finger and three drops of blood fell upon it. Then she gazed thoughtfully upon the red drops which sprinkled the white snow,...' (Opie and Opie 1974:230).



It is interesting to compare Grimm's story here. It is actually snowing in this version of the tale as Snow White's mother '...sat at a window netting. her netting needle was of black ebony, and as she worked, and the snow glittered, she pricked her finger, and three drops of blood fell into the snow. The red spots looked so beautiful in the white snow that the queen thought to herself...' (Grimm 1984:188)



This silent reflection by the Queen looking upon her freezing blood and the pattern it made in the snow activated a deep yearning for her expected child. This form of reflecting, Jung considers, is a masculine trait within the feminine. The (animus) often uses the silent image to illustrate meaning to the woman. He presents himself `...as a painter ...or is a cinema-operator or owner of a picture gallery..' (Jung 1960:171). The above motif is a fine example of such an experience. Or as Jung would put it ‘Image and meaning are identical, as the first takes shape so the latter becomes clear.’ (ibid: 204)



There are other archetypes (Jung1981:21) to be found in this story. The `Primordial Child and the earth mother.'(Jung and Kereyi 1989:158) is aptly described in the opening paragraph whose colours of black and red are depicted in the beginning of the story. It is only later as the story unfolds does it become apparent the need to `..extend the feminine consciousness both upwards and downwards..' (Ibid:162). In so doing the bud like quality of the maiden unfolds and maybe the roots go deeper.



More significantl perhaps is the symbol of transcendence of the above motif: A mosaic of some future promise which surpasses the life of the mother. Note how Snow White's mother ‘gazed thoughtfully’ on the image and places her future offspring into its structure by visualising her future child’s attributes. Within one motif we can find a pure feminine act of imagination as well as Jung’s ‘masculine trait’ (ibid) of a mother imaging her daughter's nature prior to birth.



We are presented with a `symbol' of the child through the element of `snow' on the ground. Professor Kerényi defines it ..`as an image presented by the world itself. In the image of the Primordial Child the world tells of its own childhood, and of everything that sunrise and the birth of a child mean for the world.' (Jung and Kerényi 1989:45). Later he refers again to the Primordial Child who '... originally comprised both begetter and begotten. The same idea, seen as the woman's fate, presented itself to the Greeks. The budlike quality of it is expressed in the name often given to its personification: kore, which is simply the goddess "Maiden" (Jung and Kerényi 1989:105). Our simple story touches on deep imagery in its opening passage.



Certainly what follows is the birth of a maiden of bud-like quality, and all that follows from this description by Jung and Kerényi of the science of myth is applicable to Snow White. These are ancient patterns indeed.



Other observations on the above include the number three recurring: three drops of blood: the ‘black needle,’ the ‘blood’ and the ‘snow,’ make three images: giving her daughter three attributes: Black hair and eyes, white skin and red cheeks, and the 'three' symbol of unity in ‘maid,’ ‘mother’ and ‘child’ involving a cycle of death of the maid when she is in union with a man, giving birth and renewal of life again. Three seems to be a significant figure. It is when we reach the number four the process is complete. The mother, the daughter, the shadow (the wicked step-mother) and eventually the Prince, is one example of a quaternity. It is the fourth element that seems to enter from nowhere to complete the story. The masculine or 'animus,’ appears as her prince. However, before we leap to the end of the story, our heroine has to undergo her final stage of transformation. In terms of dramatic action, it is with the fourth attempt to kill her that the step-mother queen is supposedly successful. Maybe she is spent, complete, as it were, on her fourth attempt.



Examining the development of the masculine and feminine:



There are ten men in the story of Snow White and nine represent weak or inadequate father figures within Snow White. These ten men can be broken down into four stages of development of the masculine within the development of the female in her striving to become a fully mature woman at the end of the story.



However, prior to the Ego development, it doesn't seem to matter what gender the child is, as Professor Kerényi pointed out, `..the role of the child was restricted neither to the male nor the female sex' (Jung and Kerényi 1989:147). The psychic transcendence of unconscious forces in a child includes the boy transcending to a man or ... ‘in this case 'maid' transcending to 'mother'. The metamorphosis of `one unfolding of the bud like idea that envisaged the continuity of life in the unity of maiden, mother, and child, a being that dies, gives birth, and comes to life again.' (Jung and Kereyi 1989:148). (The male in a similar state has to face his shadow side too. Non-acceptance or none integration of the shadow, results in no growth. Peter Pan never grew up, but then, he never had a shadow. In clinical practice as a therapist, I ask the patient to explore their ?attitude' to the shadow within them. I am reminded of Jack, in Jack and the Bean Stalk. His shadow was the giant he had yet to meet.)



Stage one:



Uniformity starts to emerge when we read how the queen died at the birth of her child and after her death her husband, '..the king took another wife'(Grimm 1984:188). This is the only mention of Snow Whites' father. He is an indolent father because he utterly fails to protect his child from the murderous hands of his new wife. This indolent father figure is also shared with ‘Cinderella’ and perhaps ‘Little Red Riding Hood’ who does not seem to have a father at all. Common to all these tales is the fact that the negative aspect of the masculine (indolent father) cannot be integrated and this can result in a denial of the masculine ?as..These maidens are always doomed to die, because their exclusive domination of the feminine psyche hinders the individuation process, that is, the maturation of personality'(Jung and Kerényi 1989:172).



The 'absent one' in a persons life or the one least mentioned usually has an enormous contribution to make. Our heroine starts out with an almost non-existent father figure or 'Animus’ and at this stage the mother is dead. This state of the psyche is tragic. It lacks a caring mother image and a father who cannot stand up for her and ‘doing nothing’ is the most expressive form of violence because the very act of non-doing prevents its own cure. He doesn’t offer any suggestions, guidance or even attempt to control the raging forces within her personified by the wicked step-mother. He does nothing against the raging opposite. The counter balance to the weak Animus is an inflated negative feminine 'shadow' which ?... is totally unconscious....and... seems to possess a peculiar wisdom of its own...'(Jung1981:233f) in the form of the step mother. The whole story seems to be about Snow White eventually finding her prince, the tenth male figure, before she is able to face and tame the rage within.



The Ego although ‘..an immense accumulation of images of past processes..’ within Snow White is nevertheless infantile in development and immense (Jung:1960:323:360). This initial state of a person contains all that is needed to develop into an adult but suffers from a failure of adaptation, compensated by '... an older...regressive reactivation of the parental imagos...' (Jung1995:140). As we discover, there is growth of the primal female in the form of the wicked step-mother queen. So it is not surprising that this dominant ‘shadow’ (ibid.: 208) tries to dislodge the Ego, especially when the shadow itself is married to such a weak Animus. Snow White is in a mess, we can conclude the inevitable 'Partial suicide’ is the shadow's way of restricting the existence of Snow White, our heroine (Jung and Kerényi 1989:110). If she were a patient at this stage of development, she would appear hysterical, have a terror around freedom and at the same time be dependant on whoever was available. She may well describe her feelings likened to being in a small dark place and hiding away from responsibility and the danger of the wide outside.



The ego began its own development when Snow White was seven years old, and it was then we find terror expressed by our Queenly step-mother. This terror can also accommodate jealousy, a lack of love for the child within, which then becomes hateful and murderous '...she would have been ready to tear her heart out of her body'(Grimm 1984:189).



Stage two:



This involves the first glimmer of awareness on the part of Snow White. She is considered a threat by the shadow figure in her psyche- the wicked step-mother. So the first state of male awareness emerges too- the Woodman who will do no harm, but will not protect either. This is a transit stage for Snow White as she finds herself wandering in the wilderness of the wood abandoned by adults.



The shadow within, our new usurper Queen is out to destroy Snow White and has hired the services of the Huntsman as the killer. Thus, enters the second male figure. He is not as violent as the first in that, he does do something and he refuses to harm her, but also fails to protect her, letting her go into unknown danger in the wood. At least he deceives the Shadow figure (the usurper queen) and takes back a heart of a deer as a pretense.



The Ego at this stage is under the spell of unknown forces within and is restricted in freedom ’ ...being alienated from normal life’ (Jung1960: 311) where she continues ‘hiding in the woods.’



All the masculine force of the father in Snow White was mesmerised by the attributes of beauty masking the evil content which harbored no warmth of feeling. We are told the shadow queen '..could not endure that anyone should surpass her in beauty' (Grimm 1984:188). And of course, she had the magic mirror. It was magic because the reflection looked into the mirror and saw the real self looking back from within the mirror. This is indeed a symbol of one aspect of feminine beauty. Jung says of such a woman that they have '..artistry in illusion being a specifically feminine talent.. However, it seems if a woman remains '...content to be a femme a' home, she has no feminine individuality. She is empty and merely glitters-a welcome vessel for masculine projection. (Jung and Kereyi 1989:172-3). The mirror told the queen she was no longer the best. The first emotion '...the queen was terrified' (Grimm 1984:189). A rather interesting feeling, when we consider it is only competitive beauty that is at stake. Her beauty is also about control because if she ceases to mesmerise her man he would 'see though her' and all would be lost.



Stage three:



Here is indeed more maturity within the feminine and masculine at this stage. This is where Snow White meets the common man, the vast majority of men- all seven of them! He (the dwarfs) works all day and expects everyone else to do so. So Snow White enters a tentative agreement based on mutual help: She does the house work for her keep and they needs-must work. The Shadow takes up a disguise at this stage too as the shadow is becoming aware of the budding Ego Snow White. But the Dwarfs are not grown-up enough, half man size as it were, and fail to protect their female charge and leave Snow White unguarded even after repeated homicide attempts. Likewise, the feminine is equally as stupid where she obeys the instructions ‘not to open the door’ but opens the window instead, because they never told her not to do that.



She meets the animus in the form of many which ....’is undifferentiated and many (Jung1981:16f)). ‘The animus also embodies helpful figures’... as the Dwarfs proved to be, and thus starts the Ego’s road back to recovery (Jung1960:347).



In this state although obviously distressed, Snow White is unable to get in touch with her feelings. The split within herself eventually becomes evident. The discovery of the hatred expressed by her own negative mother within, is actually witnessed. All this is painful to witness for people in real life too and our heroine is only just beginning to see it. The subdued Ego needs to find 'herself'. In the meantime, there is a need for the Ego to 'grow up' by becoming more 'differentiated,' albeit this is a process which takes time.



If you think about it, the shadow (the wicked Queen) is not the legitimate heir to the Psyche. She is usurping the Ego, and by so doing, is prepared to commit partial suicide. The wicked queen’s modus operandi includes the notion that '..there is no actual loss of reality, only a falsification of it' (Jung 1995: 140). Notice how the feminine shadow includes the 'glistening' part of the libido. It allures the masculine with little concern for the more wholesome purpose which should include the need to form an intimate relationship or to reproduce. However, in our story the potential of the ego resorts to hiding, and thereby grows up slowly replacing the totally inept ?animus' (the indolent father) with the un-differentiated but helpful dwarfs.(Perhaps the therapist plays the role of the dwarfs retrieving treasures from the unconscious, and the analysand is represented by the Ego ‘keeping house’ the temporary safe space.)



When working with women striving to integrate, the therapist’s task includes helping her to... '. Keep everything neat and clean and orderly . . . '(Grimm1984:191) and helping her to see '...directly that all was not right...' (Opie and Opie 1974:232). This latter comment includes looking at the 'sociology' of our patients too.



The number of times in fairy stories where a girl has a father in ‘name only’ indicates uniformity. 'The psychotherapist cannot fail to be impressed when he realizes how uniform the unconscious images are despite their surface richness.'(Jung 1995:175). (It was only later in Walt Disney's 'Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs' in 1938 did the dwarfs receive any personality traits whatsoever.)



For Snow White’s personal growth, her transcendence is dependant on the process of building up the inadequate masculine father through the help of the Dwarfs.



'Thus the creative dwarfs toil away in secret; the phallus, also working in darkness, begets a living thing; the key unlocks the mysterious forbidden door behind which some wonderful thing awaits discovery (Jung 1995:124). They delve into the underground or unconscious to find precious stones and minerals. In the mean time the Shadow imposter, having failed the first time, makes three more attempts to destroy the Ego. The fourth succeeds, she thinks.



Snow White has been pursued, robbed of her rights, been misunderstood or failed in her understanding, and yet she has shown few emotions. She did thank the hunter who had been ordered to kill her '..so sweetly.. '(Grimm 1984:189) for sparing her life. Another rare expression of emotion was whilst she was in the forest where the story states she became '..dreadfully frightened, and knew not what to do. She ran on as long as she could until her feet were quite sore; and towards the evening she saw, to her great joy, a pretty little house'(Grimm 1984:189). This is the time, I suggest, when a person is suffering this kind of problem they feel they are at there lowest, abandoned by all and seeking help. How many times do we therapists marvel at what our patients have been through? I am often presented with dullness of feeling and at the same time ?a toughness.' This latter quality is the very thing that will take them through the analysand to reach integration. It is as though, the resilience, or ability to suffer, is equal to the task to be surmounted.



The fairy story of a young man’s personal development is similar, but he ‘goes forth’ to meet his shadow, and the woman remains in the house and is visited by her shadow. Whereas Jack (in Jack and the Bean Stalk) disguised himself three times when approaching the 'shadow complex'. '.. He had a dress prepared, which would disguise him, and with something to discolour his skin, he thought it impossible for any one to recollect him.'(Opie and Opie 1974:221), it is the opposite with the feminine, as the shadow, the step-mother queen disguises herself three times '...disguised herself as an old pedlar,... '(Opie and Opie 1974:232) and the second time the wicked queen '... dressed herself up again in disguise but very different from the one she wore before...'(ibid:234). Snow White would have known by now one would think, but no! On her final and third visit we learn '.. she dressed herself up as a peasant's wife'...(ibid:234). I am often astounded when working with some women that they do not realize that what is going on in their lives is 'not right.' They have come to accept the unacceptable. It seems there is a necessity to help the Ego recognise the wrong doing and 'grow up' and first to ‘accept’ the shadow. Instigating a dialogue with the dark side is essential in this task of negotiating with the shadow. This work also involves examining the ‘attitude’ held towards the shadow. I find the technique of Jung's 'Transcendent function'(Jung 1960:67-91) can be used here to great advantage.



Stage four:



The Prince comes into her world only when she is unconscious, before she can lay claim to her birth-right as a Princess. What luck she had, lying there as one dead when the Prince happened to come along, or as Jung would have it ‘... is there some other nervous substrate in us, apart from the cerebrum, that can think and perceive, or whether the psychic process that go in us during loss of consciousness are synchronistic phenomena.. (Ibid: 509)



Another pattern common in the fairy story is the notion of hiding or comatose state of the heroine which amounts to a special kind of sleep, and even results (in our case) in the wicked Queen stopping scheming too. The Ego has now a chance to become redeemable, that is, ?return to life' and at the same time claim unity with the masculine (the arrival of the Prince). United in marriage, they return to put the usurper in her proper place.



The universal principles of maidenhood:



There seem to be six major aspects in the universal principles of life found in the myth of the maiden (Jung and Kerényi 1989:137). How many of these principles can we find in the fairy tale? I offer a brief comparison between what the two professors deducted and what has come to light in our story:



1. The first principle is '... to be pursued...'(Jung and Kerényi 1989:137). Snow White was certainly pursued by the step-mother queen, '...and went her way over the hills to the place where the dwarfs dwelt.'(Opie and Opie 1974:232).



2. The second aspect is one of being '...robbed..' (Jung and Kerényi 1989:137). Snow White's heritage was usurped. She was the Princess and rightful heir to the whole kingdom. The step mother robbed her of her rights and would have robbed her of her life too.



3. The third aspect of the myth of the maiden concerns being '...raped, ...'(Jung and Kerényi 1989:137). Such calamities cannot be allowed in childrens stories. However, Snow White was unquestionably physically abused when she was subjected to the wicked step-mother who placed a silk lace for her stays round her waist and '...pulled the lace so tight, that Snow-drop lost her breath, and fell down as if she were dead.(Grimm 1984: 192). Next, the child was subjected to a poisoned comb and she '..stood before the woman to have her hair dressed; but no sooner had the comb touched the roots of her hair than the poison took effect'(Grimm 1984:193/4). Finally, having failed via wrapping the white skin tight and digging into the black ebony hair, she poisoned her with an apple placed between those rosy red lips. All of these together do not amount to rape, but certainly amount to serious abuse.



4. The fourth quality according to Jung is for the maiden to '.. fail to understand,(Jung and Kerényi 1989:137). Snow White did this on so many occasions it seems there was never a time she did understand. She was told '... on no account to open the door...'(Grimm 1984:194), which she technically did not, but instead shouted to the disguised farmer's wife 'I dare not let you in; the seven dwarfs have forbidden me. 'But I am all right,' said the farmer's wife. 'Stay and I will show you my apples.'(ibid:194). On one level could any person be so dim? Snow White is not so innocent though, she did play a role in all of this by her desire for the trinkets and goodies on offer. This showed naivety too, thus giving her full rites of passage to qualify for this maidenhood archetype found in mythology. When working with people suffering this internal split, I make great play on the qualities of the shadow’s ability to know, to be cute, to have wisdom, as one of the reasons why it is necessary to accept the shadow. However, it seems Snow White is so innocent even at this stage that an approach of trying to introduce the shadow to her would be almost disastrous. She has to die, and thereby transform and become a woman first.



5. Having suffered so much pain and malice, our sweet heroine must at some time undergo the fifth quality '..to rage ?(Jung and Kerényi 1989:137). In our story there is no hint that Snow White herself actually becomes enraged or grieves, but the shadow does. This can only happen when the prince or the animus has established itself in the feminine psyche.



For the first time, the wicked step-mother 'is actually invited' by the Ego, that is, she joins with what Snow White is doing. The shadow is recognised. This is the final process where the shadow is invited by the Ego to integrate with the Ego, (not the other way round.) In so doing, the Shadow is allowed to express the rage and grief.



6. The sixth principle is to '... grieve, (ibid)., which is the completion of transition:



I'll let the story take over here and tell its own tale.



'Now it happened that the stepmother of Snow-white was invited, among other guests, to the wedding-feast. Before she left her house she stood in all her rich dress before the magic mirror to admire her own appearance but she could not help saying:



'Mirror, Mirror on the wall

Am I most beautiful of all?'



Then to her surprise the mirror replied :

'Fair queen thou art the fairest here,

But at the palace, now,

The bride will prove a thousand times

More beautiful that thou.'



Then the wicked woman uttered a curse, and was so dreadfully alarmed that she knew not what to do. At first she declared she would not go to this wedding at all, but she felt it impossible to rest until she had seen the bride, so she determined to go. But what was her astonishment and vexation when she recognised the young bride Snow-white herself, now grown a charming young woman, and richly dressed in royal robes! Her rage and terror were so great that she stood still and could not move for some minutes. At last she went into the ball-room, but the slippers she wore were to her as iron bands full of coals of fire, in which she was obliged to dance. And so in the red, glowing shoes she continued to dance till she fell dead on the floor, a sad example of envy and jealously.'(Grimm 1984:198).



The interpretation of the ‘complex’ actually dancing itself harmlessly to death from vexation and rage, constitutes the demise of the maiden (Jung 1960:98&369). This is another reason why the maiden had to die in the story, to indicate her innocence is no more. Significantly, her wedding is taking place at the same time, which indicates the unifying of the feminine and masculine. This is the symbol of the fourth element or fourth stage (re above), the completion.



I have tried to show that the fairytale has a lot of the hallmarks normally reserved for classical myth. This being so, I suggest the fairy tale needs to be taken seriously as representing authentic primitive unconscious patterns within the psyche.



Robert Graves suggests there are few references to ritual murder of women in European myth (Graves 1999:411). He cites the German folk-stories Sleeping Beauty and Snow White as exceptions. He stats their significance also includes the importance of the number 13, in the case of Sleeping Beauty representing the thirteenth month as the death month whereby the uninvited thirteenth guest curses the Princess.



In the Snow White illustration Graves states Snow White was a Goddess who was plainly immortal and that 'These deaths are therefore mock-deaths only-.' The emphasis is on the 'annual drama...when his bride consents to open her half-closed eyes and smile' (ibid: 412). So Graves has no problem elevating the fairy story to classical myth.



Just to complete my analogy of the fairy story to myth before I draw together my conclusions, Jung then adds that the maiden will '....get everything back and be born again.'(ibid:137). She takes the place of the mother, able to reflect as she herself was imaged by her mother, and so on, stretching back and forward in time.



We have seen that although the Anima is singular in the male, it has both positive and negative qualities. By contrast the animus in the female is multiple, represented by the ten men. Note the progression :-



The first was her father who did absolutely nothing.



The second man would not hurt Snow White but did little to help her either and let her go in the woods. She did speak to him though by begging to be let free.



The third type of man is Mr Majority, the seven dwarfs who were much better: They took her in: Offered her shelter and advice: They nursed her when she was attacked. She gave back, (Note this is the first act of communicating with the masculine by her). By looking after their house for them, she entered a contract, an agreement. But the dwarfs did not stay back to protect her when there was an attempted murder, rather they left her to her own devices. So the dwarfs care for their female charge was incomplete. There was not a ?full man' between them.



The last, the fourth, was the Prince. The tenth male figure represents the symbol of completion of unification with the masuline. After all, Snow White is essentially a story for girls, for the female, and it is about the development of the feminine psyche, but the whole story is as relevant to men as it is to women, as I hope I have shown.



I recall an account where C.G. Jung once concluded in a stubborn case, in desperation he advised a neurotic patient to just ‘shut up!’ I have made the connection that the piece of apple caught in Snow White's throat effectively did just that, It ‘shut her up.’ Thus the Ego stopped the shadow-part of herself from creating further havoc. The negative aspect of the feminine has to be silenced before the Prince can arrive.



What if the Prince met the wicked step-mother first? That would lead to a whole new tale, but through the ‘controlled silence’ the prince was actually given space to become enthralled with his bride to be and thus installed.



In Conclusion:



I have tried to establish underlying patterns of the psyche in the fairy tale by perusing a notion that the story could also be interpreted as an aspect of psychic development. I have attempt ed to plot the process through which our heroine had to travel in order to find completion, as an aid to our understanding.



Thus:-



At the beginning of our story where Snow White is almost comatose and un-differentiated. It could be said such people are in shock, chaos and in a state of not knowing where to turn and continuing to reside in a life style of aloneness and fear. When there is some degree of differentiation the shadow is threatened. A terror prevails around the prospect of taking what is rightfully their own; freedom to become, freedom to embrace their own opposite.



Rather than contemplate this freedom, such an individual would rather create chaos and even wish to die.



At this primitive stage the Ego lives to please others.



Our heroine was unable to seek out what is useful from the unconscious, and had little idea of her own dark side.



From the above story we can see people in this state lack power. In the state of innocence a person will attribute to others all that happens to them and take no responsibility themselves. They are not willing to accept their own dark side. After several incidences brought about by their own destructive behaviour, they are still incapable of looking at the raging ‘other half’ within, but choose to remain tucked away from life.



Statements like 'I can't.' form part of the power game being played out by the shadow which prevents them from seeing their own part in this destruction.



At this point there is a long process of dialogue, psycho dramatically with the complex, and slowly our heroine (Ego) can begin to accept their own faults.



There are many dangers at this stage as the Ego gathers knowledge from the depths of the unconscious. This process continues until a final stage of conflict occurs where the Ego is in serious trouble. The awareness begins to prove intolerable: The choices are stark, either become more comatose or find a way to go more fully into life.



To complete their integration, our heroine must invite her shadow to participate.



A person has to learn to ‘shut up’ the endless complaints made by the shadow and witness their own rage and discover a way of expressing it harmlessly, that is, to observe their rage 'dance itself out harmlessly' is preferable to becoming their own victim once again. Then a person can decide to stop the previous useless and harmful actions and take charge of their own life, or as in the story, rule their own kingdom.



Bibliography:



Anderson, H, C, The Complete Illustrated Stories of Hans Christian Andersen (1983), Chancellor Press London.



Jung C,G. The Collected Works..Vol’ 8. ‘The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche ‘1960 Routledge London .



Jung C,G. The Collective Works. Vol ‘6 pt X1. ‘Psychological Types’ ‘1971 Routledge London.



Jung C,G. The Collected Works. Vol' ‘9 pt 11. ‘Aion’ 1981. Routledge , London.



Jung C, G. The Collected Works Vol 16 ‘The Psychology of the Transference’ ‘1983 Ark Paperbacks. London



Jung C,G. The Collected Works. Vol 12. Psychology and Alchemy 1993 Routledge London



Jung C,G. The Collected Works. Vol 5 Symbols of Transformation 1995 Routledge London



Jung C, G.& C. Kerényi Essays on a Science of Mythology 1993 Princeton University press USA.



Opie. P & I. The Classic Fairy Tales. 1980 Granada. Oxford.



Graves Robert The White Goddess (1999) Faber and Faber.



© Stephen Flynn 2005.
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